细胞生物.2 | Transport across the membrane
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Transport across the membrane

跨膜运输


Passive

被动运输

Active

主动运输


Passive transport (Diffusion)

被动运输(扩散)

  • Simple diffusion
    简单扩散
  • Channel-mediated diffusion
    通道介导扩散
  • Carrier-mediated diffusion
    载体介导扩散

1) Simple diffusion

1)简单扩散

Diffusion = movement down the concentration gradient
扩散 = 沿浓度梯度方向的移动

For non-polar molecules
适用于非极性分子

Doesn’t bind to anything
不需要与任何分子结合


2) Channel-mediated diffusion (e.g., ions)

2)通道介导扩散(如离子)

Highly selective
高度选择性

Doesn’t bind to anything
不需要与任何分子结合

Types of channels:
通道的类型:

  • Always open channel → aquaporins
    始终开放型通道 → 水通道蛋白
  • Voltage-dependent channel → Na⁺, K⁺
    电压依赖型通道 → 钠离子通道、钾离子通道
  • Ligand-dependent channel → Ach receptor (cation channel)
    配体依赖型通道 → 乙酰胆碱受体(阳离子通道)
  • Mechanical force–dependent channel
    机械力依赖型通道

Ligand-gated channel
配体门控通道

Ligand can be:
配体可以是:

  • Extracellular mediator (e.g., neurotransmitter like Ach)
    细胞外信使(如乙酰胆碱等神经递质)
  • Intracellular mediator (e.g., ions like Ca²⁺, H⁺)
    细胞内信使(如 Ca²⁺、H⁺ 等离子)
  • Nucleotide (also intracellular)
    核苷酸(也属于细胞内)

Example:
例子:

  • K⁺ channel (potassium channel, voltage-gated)
    钾通道(电压门控型)
  • Selective filter: allows K⁺ to pass but not Na⁺
    选择性过滤:只允许 K⁺ 通过,而不让 Na⁺ 通过

Neurons are good at using ion channels
神经元擅长利用离子通道

Use different types of ion channels to receive, conduct, and transmit signals
利用不同类型的离子通道来接收、传导和传递信号

H₂O channel (Aquaporins) or water channel
水通道(Aquaporins)或称水孔道

H₂O is too polar, can’t pass plasma membrane
水分子极性太强,无法自由穿过质膜

Exists in every cell type
存在于所有类型的细胞中

Doesn’t need energy
不需要能量

Aquaporins = tetramer (4 monomers), each with its own pore
水通道蛋白 = 四聚体(4 个单体),每个单体都有自己的孔道

Always open
始终开放

Efficient: billions of molecules in 1 second
效率极高:每秒可通过数十亿个水分子


3) Carrier-mediated diffusion (e.g., glucose)

3)载体介导扩散(如葡萄糖)

No energy required
不需要能量

Example:
例子:

  • GLUT4 and GLUT2
    GLUT4 和 GLUT2
  • GLUT4: uptake in muscle and fat cells
    GLUT4:存在于肌肉和脂肪细胞,负责葡萄糖摄取
  • GLUT2: found in skeletal muscle, liver, adipose tissue
    GLUT2:存在于骨骼肌、肝脏和脂肪组织

Active Transport

主动运输

Moves substances against their electrochemical gradient
将物质逆着电化学梯度运输

Requires energy
需要能量

Involves carriers/transporters/permeases
涉及载体/转运蛋白/通透酶

Binds to carriers
需要与载体结合

Works against both:
作用方向可以逆着:

  • Concentration gradient
    浓度梯度
  • Electrical gradient
    电势梯度

ATP-driven pumps (Transport ATPases)

ATP 驱动的泵(转运 ATP 酶)

There are 3 main classes:
主要有三类:

  • P-type pump
    P 型泵
  • ABC transporter
    ABC 转运蛋白
  • V-type proton pump
    V 型质子泵

(⚠️ F-type ATP synthase is not for transport – it makes ATP, not uses it)
⚠️ F 型 ATP 合酶不属于转运泵——它合成 ATP,而不是消耗 ATP


ATP hydrolysis & energy coupling

ATP 水解与能量偶联

ATP → ADP + Pi (inorganic phosphate)
ATP → ADP + Pi(无机磷酸)

ΔG < 0 → exergonic
ΔG < 0 → 放能反应

The energy from ATP hydrolysis is used to power endergonic processes like active transport.
ATP 水解释放的能量被用来驱动需能反应,例如主动运输。


Energetics

能量学

TermMeaningExample
EndergonicRequires energy (ΔG > 0)Active transport 主动运输
ExergonicReleases energy (ΔG < 0)Passive diffusion 被动扩散, ATP hydrolysis ATP 水解

Details of Each Pump Type

各类泵的详细机制

1. P-type ATPase (self-phosphorylating)

1. P 型 ATP 酶(自磷酸化)

Phosphate binds to the same protein
磷酸基团结合在同一个蛋白上

Ions: H⁺, K⁺, Na⁺, Ca²⁺
转运离子: H⁺、K⁺、Na⁺、Ca²⁺

  • Na⁺/K⁺ pump: 3 Na⁺ out / 2 K⁺ in per ATP
    Na⁺/K⁺ 泵:每消耗 1 个 ATP → 输出 3 个 Na⁺,输入 2 个 K⁺
  • Ca²⁺ pump: 2 Ca²⁺ back to SR/ER per ATP
    Ca²⁺ 泵:每个 ATP 将 2 个 Ca²⁺ 运回肌浆网/内质网

Domains:
结构域:

  • N-domain: binds ATP
    N 区:结合 ATP
  • P-domain: phosphorylation
    P 区:磷酸化位点
  • A-domain: triggers conformational change
    A 区:触发构象变化
  • Transmembrane domain: ion binding
    跨膜区:结合离子

Steps:
步骤:

  1. Ion binds → 离子结合
  2. ATP binds → ATP 结合
  3. Phosphorylation → 蛋白磷酸化
  4. Conformational change → 蛋白构象改变
  5. Ion release → 离子释放
  6. Dephosphorylation → 脱磷酸化

Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase (PM):
Na⁺/K⁺ ATP 酶(质膜上):

  • Electrogenic → 产生电荷不平衡
  • Maintains membrane potential and cell volume → 维持膜电位和细胞体积
  • Uses ~⅓ of total cell ATP → 占细胞总 ATP 消耗的约三分之一

2 subunits:
两个亚基:

  • α: main function (ion transport) → α 亚基:主要功能(离子转运)
  • β: stabilizes structure → β 亚基:稳定结构

Ca²⁺ ATPase (SR/ER):
Ca²⁺ ATP 酶(肌浆网/内质网):

  • Not electrogenic → 不产生电荷不平衡
  • Stops muscle contraction, involved in signaling → 终止肌肉收缩,参与信号调控
  • Only activated when cytosolic Ca²⁺ is too high → 仅在胞质钙过高时激活

2. V-type proton pump

2. V 型质子泵

  • Only H⁺, pumps into vesicles/organelles
    只转运 H⁺,泵入囊泡/细胞器
  • Works against H⁺ gradient
    逆质子梯度工作
  • Uses ATP, no phosphorylation
    需要 ATP,但不自磷酸化
  • Found in lysosomes, endosomes, etc.
    分布在溶酶体、内涵体等
  • Maintains low pH inside vesicles
    维持囊泡内部低 pH

3. ABC Transporters

3. ABC 转运蛋白

  • Moves small molecules, not just ions
    可转运小分子,不仅限于离子
  • Uses ATP (not self-phosphorylating)
    需要 ATP(但不自磷酸化)
  • Often found in drug resistance systems
    常见于耐药系统
  • Example: MDR (multi-drug resistance) proteins
    例子:MDR(多药耐药)蛋白

4. F-type ATP Synthase (not a pump)

4. F 型 ATP 合酶(不是泵)

  • Location: inner mitochondrial membrane (in eukaryotes)
    位置:真核生物线粒体内膜

  • Synthesizes ATP, doesn’t hydrolyze it
    合成 ATP,而不是水解 ATP

  • Uses proton gradient:
    利用质子梯度:

    H⁺ flows down the gradient from intermembrane space into the matrix
    H⁺ 顺着浓度梯度从膜间隙流入基质

    This flow causes rotation of ATP synthase
    这一流动驱动 ATP 合酶旋转

    Rotation joins ADP + Pi → ATP
    旋转将 ADP + Pi 合成为 ATP


✅ Summary Table: ATP-Driven Pumps

✅ 总结表:ATP 驱动的泵

Pump TypeMain CargoUses ATP?Self-Phosphorylation?LocationNotes
P-typeNa⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, H⁺YesYesPM, ER, SRElectrogenic (Na⁺/K⁺), 4 domains 电生性,4 个结构域
V-typeH⁺ (into organelles)YesNoVesicles (lysosomes etc)Keeps vesicles acidic 保持囊泡酸性
ABCSmall moleculesYesNoPM, organellesIncludes drug transporters 包含耐药转运蛋白
F-typeH⁺ (gradient)NoNoMitochondriaMakes ATP, not transport 合成 ATP,不参与转运

Detailed Comparison: Na⁺/K⁺ Pump vs Ca²⁺ Pump (P-type ATPases)

FeatureNa⁺/K⁺ PumpCa²⁺ Pump (on SR/ER)
LocationPlasma membrane (PM)Sarcoplasmic/Endoplasmic reticulum (SR/ER)
Transported Ions3 Na⁺ out, 2 K⁺ in per 1 ATP2 Ca²⁺ back into SR/ER lumen per 1 ATP
Electrogenic?✅ Yes (net +1 charge out)❌ No (electrically neutral transport)
Activated WhenContinuously active (with regulation)Only when cytosolic Ca²⁺ is high
FunctionMaintain membrane potential, cell volume, Na⁺ gradientStop muscle contraction, cell signaling
Energy Use~1/3 of cell’s total ATPOnly uses ATP when needed

🟣 Common Features (P-type ATPase core)

🟣Feature🟣Description
4 Structural Domains
① N-domainBinds ATP
② P-domainPhosphorylation site — self-phosphorylates at aspartate residue (Asp)
③ A-domainTriggers conformational change after phosphorylation
④ TM domainTransmembrane domain: binds specific ions (Na⁺/K⁺ or Ca²⁺)
Self-phosphorylationAdds phosphate group to Asp in same protein (auto-phosphorylation)

🟣 Common Operating Steps (1 cycle)

StepDescription
Ions bindingSpecific ions bind to the pump from cytosol
ATP bindingATP binds to N-domain
PhosphorylationATP → ADP + Pi, phosphate transferred to P-domain (Asp)
Conformational changeTriggered by A-domain, protein flips conformation
Ion releaseIons are released to the other side of membrane
DephosphorylationPi removed, pump resets

V-type Proton Pump

(V = vesicular)

项目内容
位置各种细胞器:lysosomes, endosomes, synaptic vesicles
结构类似“turbine”,由多个亚基组成
是否自磷酸化不含 N/P/A domain不自磷酸化
能量来源✔️ 使用ATP,每ATP大约驱动 2–4 个H⁺进入囊泡
功能主动泵H⁺进入囊泡内 → 制造酸性环境(降低pH) ✔️ 激活溶酶体内的酶类 ✔️ 参与受体回收调节等过程

ABC Transporter

(ATP-Binding Cassette)

项目内容
结构有两个 highly conserved 的 ATPase domains(也叫 ATP-binding cassettes) 位于膜内侧(胞质侧)
是否自磷酸化❌ 不自磷酸化,只是使用ATP进行动力转换
机制(Steps)① substrate 结合在一侧的 binding site ② ATP结合 → 构象改变 ③ 物质运输到膜另一侧 ④ ATP水解后 domains 分离,系统复位
功能把小分子(如药物、营养)主动运出细胞
位置✅ 所有细菌的PM(如用来把营养泵入) ✅ 真核细胞:几乎到处都有(PM, ER, organelles) 例子:MDR蛋白(多药耐药)

Co-transport & Secondary Active Transport

类型方向/特点例子
Symport两种物质一起进或一起出(同方向)Na⁺/glucose symporter
Antiport一进一出(反方向)Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger
项目内容
是否使用ATP❌ 本身 不直接使用ATP
能量来源来自已有的浓度梯度,通常由原发性主动转运造成
代表机制Secondary active transport(继发性主动转运)
例子肠道中: ① Luminal side:Na⁺/glucose symport 进入细胞(靠Na⁺梯度) ② Basal side:glucose通过载体扩散出去;Na⁺/K⁺ pump维持梯度和膜电位

✅ 三种机制对比表

类别是否用ATP是否自磷酸化是否主动转运举例/功能
V-type H⁺ pump✔️ 用ATP❌ 不自磷酸化✔️ 是泵H⁺进入囊泡,使溶酶体变酸
ABC transporter✔️ 用ATP❌ 不自磷酸化✔️ 是把小分子如药物或营养泵出/泵入细胞
Co-transport (secondary)❌ 不直接用ATP❌ 无⚠️ 间接依赖主动转运用Na⁺梯度推动葡萄糖等进入细胞(如肠道)

🧠 补充说明:ATP-Driven Pumps = Transport ATPases

  • 全称:ATP-driven pumps
  • 也叫:Transport ATPases
理由解释
它们不仅是转运体(transporter)因为能主动转运物质(离子、小分子)
它们也是酶(ATPase)因为能催化ATP水解,释放能量(ATP → ADP + Pi)来驱动转运

✅ 所有这类泵都属于酶(ATPase family):

Pump 类型是否是酶?备注
P-type pump✅ 是酶自磷酸化(aspartate),典型ATPase
V-type pump✅ 是酶虽然不自磷酸化,但会水解ATP来泵H⁺
ABC transporter✅ 是酶有ATP-binding cassette,水解ATP触发构象变化

🧠 Transport Across Membrane

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Transport
├── 1. Passive Transport (Diffusion) ← No ATP
│ ├── a) Simple diffusion ← nonpolar, no protein
│ ├── b) Channel-mediated diffusion ← ions, aquaporins (no binding)
│ └── c) Carrier-mediated diffusion ← e.g., GLUT (binds to carrier)

└── 2. Active Transport ← Requires ATP or ion gradient
├── a) ATP-driven pumps (Transport ATPases)
│ ├── i. P-type pump ← Na⁺/K⁺, Ca²⁺, self-phosphorylation
│ ├── ii. V-type proton pump ← vesicles, acidify
│ └── iii. ABC transporter ← pumps small molecules

├── b) Co-transport (Secondary Active)
│ ├── i. Symport ← Na⁺/glucose (same direction)
│ └── ii. Antiport ← Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger (opposite direction)

└── c) Secondary Active Transport
└── Uses gradient from ATP pumps (e.g., Na⁺ gradient from Na⁺/K⁺ pump)

✅ 简易记忆口诀

  • Passive = No ATP, just follow concentration gradient
    • Simple = no protein
    • Channel = open or gated
    • Carrier = still no ATP, but needs carrier protein
  • Active = Needs energy (either ATP or gradient)
    • ATP-driven pumps are real enzymes (ATPases)
    • Co-transport uses gradient, not ATP directly
    • All secondary active transport relies on primary active transport
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