Transport across the membrane
跨膜运输
Passive
被动运输
Active
主动运输
Passive transport (Diffusion)
被动运输(扩散)
- Simple diffusion
简单扩散 - Channel-mediated diffusion
通道介导扩散 - Carrier-mediated diffusion
载体介导扩散
1) Simple diffusion
1)简单扩散
Diffusion = movement down the concentration gradient
扩散 = 沿浓度梯度方向的移动
For non-polar molecules
适用于非极性分子
Doesn’t bind to anything
不需要与任何分子结合
2) Channel-mediated diffusion (e.g., ions)
2)通道介导扩散(如离子)
Highly selective
高度选择性
Doesn’t bind to anything
不需要与任何分子结合
Types of channels:
通道的类型:
- Always open channel → aquaporins
始终开放型通道 → 水通道蛋白 - Voltage-dependent channel → Na⁺, K⁺
电压依赖型通道 → 钠离子通道、钾离子通道 - Ligand-dependent channel → Ach receptor (cation channel)
配体依赖型通道 → 乙酰胆碱受体(阳离子通道) - Mechanical force–dependent channel
机械力依赖型通道
Ligand-gated channel
配体门控通道
Ligand can be:
配体可以是:
- Extracellular mediator (e.g., neurotransmitter like Ach)
细胞外信使(如乙酰胆碱等神经递质) - Intracellular mediator (e.g., ions like Ca²⁺, H⁺)
细胞内信使(如 Ca²⁺、H⁺ 等离子) - Nucleotide (also intracellular)
核苷酸(也属于细胞内)
Example:
例子:
- K⁺ channel (potassium channel, voltage-gated)
钾通道(电压门控型) - Selective filter: allows K⁺ to pass but not Na⁺
选择性过滤:只允许 K⁺ 通过,而不让 Na⁺ 通过
Neurons are good at using ion channels
神经元擅长利用离子通道
Use different types of ion channels to receive, conduct, and transmit signals
利用不同类型的离子通道来接收、传导和传递信号
H₂O channel (Aquaporins) or water channel
水通道(Aquaporins)或称水孔道
H₂O is too polar, can’t pass plasma membrane
水分子极性太强,无法自由穿过质膜
Exists in every cell type
存在于所有类型的细胞中
Doesn’t need energy
不需要能量
Aquaporins = tetramer (4 monomers), each with its own pore
水通道蛋白 = 四聚体(4 个单体),每个单体都有自己的孔道
Always open
始终开放
Efficient: billions of molecules in 1 second
效率极高:每秒可通过数十亿个水分子
3) Carrier-mediated diffusion (e.g., glucose)
3)载体介导扩散(如葡萄糖)
No energy required
不需要能量
Example:
例子:
- GLUT4 and GLUT2
GLUT4 和 GLUT2 - GLUT4: uptake in muscle and fat cells
GLUT4:存在于肌肉和脂肪细胞,负责葡萄糖摄取 - GLUT2: found in skeletal muscle, liver, adipose tissue
GLUT2:存在于骨骼肌、肝脏和脂肪组织
Active Transport
主动运输
Moves substances against their electrochemical gradient
将物质逆着电化学梯度运输
Requires energy
需要能量
Involves carriers/transporters/permeases
涉及载体/转运蛋白/通透酶
Binds to carriers
需要与载体结合
Works against both:
作用方向可以逆着:
- Concentration gradient
浓度梯度 - Electrical gradient
电势梯度
ATP-driven pumps (Transport ATPases)
ATP 驱动的泵(转运 ATP 酶)
There are 3 main classes:
主要有三类:
- P-type pump
P 型泵 - ABC transporter
ABC 转运蛋白 - V-type proton pump
V 型质子泵
(⚠️ F-type ATP synthase is not for transport – it makes ATP, not uses it)
⚠️ F 型 ATP 合酶不属于转运泵——它合成 ATP,而不是消耗 ATP
ATP hydrolysis & energy coupling
ATP 水解与能量偶联
ATP → ADP + Pi (inorganic phosphate)
ATP → ADP + Pi(无机磷酸)
ΔG < 0 → exergonic
ΔG < 0 → 放能反应
The energy from ATP hydrolysis is used to power endergonic processes like active transport.
ATP 水解释放的能量被用来驱动需能反应,例如主动运输。
Energetics
能量学
| Term | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Endergonic | Requires energy (ΔG > 0) | Active transport 主动运输 |
| Exergonic | Releases energy (ΔG < 0) | Passive diffusion 被动扩散, ATP hydrolysis ATP 水解 |
Details of Each Pump Type
各类泵的详细机制
1. P-type ATPase (self-phosphorylating)
1. P 型 ATP 酶(自磷酸化)
Phosphate binds to the same protein
磷酸基团结合在同一个蛋白上
Ions: H⁺, K⁺, Na⁺, Ca²⁺
转运离子: H⁺、K⁺、Na⁺、Ca²⁺
- Na⁺/K⁺ pump: 3 Na⁺ out / 2 K⁺ in per ATP
Na⁺/K⁺ 泵:每消耗 1 个 ATP → 输出 3 个 Na⁺,输入 2 个 K⁺ - Ca²⁺ pump: 2 Ca²⁺ back to SR/ER per ATP
Ca²⁺ 泵:每个 ATP 将 2 个 Ca²⁺ 运回肌浆网/内质网
Domains:
结构域:
- N-domain: binds ATP
N 区:结合 ATP - P-domain: phosphorylation
P 区:磷酸化位点 - A-domain: triggers conformational change
A 区:触发构象变化 - Transmembrane domain: ion binding
跨膜区:结合离子
Steps:
步骤:
- Ion binds → 离子结合
- ATP binds → ATP 结合
- Phosphorylation → 蛋白磷酸化
- Conformational change → 蛋白构象改变
- Ion release → 离子释放
- Dephosphorylation → 脱磷酸化
Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase (PM):
Na⁺/K⁺ ATP 酶(质膜上):
- Electrogenic → 产生电荷不平衡
- Maintains membrane potential and cell volume → 维持膜电位和细胞体积
- Uses ~⅓ of total cell ATP → 占细胞总 ATP 消耗的约三分之一
2 subunits:
两个亚基:
- α: main function (ion transport) → α 亚基:主要功能(离子转运)
- β: stabilizes structure → β 亚基:稳定结构
Ca²⁺ ATPase (SR/ER):
Ca²⁺ ATP 酶(肌浆网/内质网):
- Not electrogenic → 不产生电荷不平衡
- Stops muscle contraction, involved in signaling → 终止肌肉收缩,参与信号调控
- Only activated when cytosolic Ca²⁺ is too high → 仅在胞质钙过高时激活
2. V-type proton pump
2. V 型质子泵
- Only H⁺, pumps into vesicles/organelles
只转运 H⁺,泵入囊泡/细胞器 - Works against H⁺ gradient
逆质子梯度工作 - Uses ATP, no phosphorylation
需要 ATP,但不自磷酸化 - Found in lysosomes, endosomes, etc.
分布在溶酶体、内涵体等 - Maintains low pH inside vesicles
维持囊泡内部低 pH
3. ABC Transporters
3. ABC 转运蛋白
- Moves small molecules, not just ions
可转运小分子,不仅限于离子 - Uses ATP (not self-phosphorylating)
需要 ATP(但不自磷酸化) - Often found in drug resistance systems
常见于耐药系统 - Example: MDR (multi-drug resistance) proteins
例子:MDR(多药耐药)蛋白
4. F-type ATP Synthase (not a pump)
4. F 型 ATP 合酶(不是泵)
Location: inner mitochondrial membrane (in eukaryotes)
位置:真核生物线粒体内膜Synthesizes ATP, doesn’t hydrolyze it
合成 ATP,而不是水解 ATPUses proton gradient:
利用质子梯度:H⁺ flows down the gradient from intermembrane space into the matrix
H⁺ 顺着浓度梯度从膜间隙流入基质This flow causes rotation of ATP synthase
这一流动驱动 ATP 合酶旋转Rotation joins ADP + Pi → ATP
旋转将 ADP + Pi 合成为 ATP
✅ Summary Table: ATP-Driven Pumps
✅ 总结表:ATP 驱动的泵
| Pump Type | Main Cargo | Uses ATP? | Self-Phosphorylation? | Location | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| P-type | Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, H⁺ | Yes | Yes | PM, ER, SR | Electrogenic (Na⁺/K⁺), 4 domains 电生性,4 个结构域 |
| V-type | H⁺ (into organelles) | Yes | No | Vesicles (lysosomes etc) | Keeps vesicles acidic 保持囊泡酸性 |
| ABC | Small molecules | Yes | No | PM, organelles | Includes drug transporters 包含耐药转运蛋白 |
| F-type | H⁺ (gradient) | No | No | Mitochondria | Makes ATP, not transport 合成 ATP,不参与转运 |
Detailed Comparison: Na⁺/K⁺ Pump vs Ca²⁺ Pump (P-type ATPases)
| Feature | Na⁺/K⁺ Pump | Ca²⁺ Pump (on SR/ER) |
|---|---|---|
| Location | Plasma membrane (PM) | Sarcoplasmic/Endoplasmic reticulum (SR/ER) |
| Transported Ions | 3 Na⁺ out, 2 K⁺ in per 1 ATP | 2 Ca²⁺ back into SR/ER lumen per 1 ATP |
| Electrogenic? | ✅ Yes (net +1 charge out) | ❌ No (electrically neutral transport) |
| Activated When | Continuously active (with regulation) | Only when cytosolic Ca²⁺ is high |
| Function | Maintain membrane potential, cell volume, Na⁺ gradient | Stop muscle contraction, cell signaling |
| Energy Use | ~1/3 of cell’s total ATP | Only uses ATP when needed |
🟣 Common Features (P-type ATPase core)
| 🟣Feature | 🟣Description |
|---|---|
| 4 Structural Domains | |
| ① N-domain | Binds ATP |
| ② P-domain | Phosphorylation site — self-phosphorylates at aspartate residue (Asp) |
| ③ A-domain | Triggers conformational change after phosphorylation |
| ④ TM domain | Transmembrane domain: binds specific ions (Na⁺/K⁺ or Ca²⁺) |
| Self-phosphorylation | Adds phosphate group to Asp in same protein (auto-phosphorylation) |
🟣 Common Operating Steps (1 cycle)
| Step | Description |
|---|---|
| ① Ions binding | Specific ions bind to the pump from cytosol |
| ② ATP binding | ATP binds to N-domain |
| ③ Phosphorylation | ATP → ADP + Pi, phosphate transferred to P-domain (Asp) |
| ④ Conformational change | Triggered by A-domain, protein flips conformation |
| ⑤ Ion release | Ions are released to the other side of membrane |
| ⑥ Dephosphorylation | Pi removed, pump resets |
① V-type Proton Pump
(V = vesicular)
| 项目 | 内容 |
|---|---|
| 位置 | 各种细胞器:lysosomes, endosomes, synaptic vesicles 等 |
| 结构 | 类似“turbine”,由多个亚基组成 |
| 是否自磷酸化 | ❌ 不含 N/P/A domain,不自磷酸化 |
| 能量来源 | ✔️ 使用ATP,每ATP大约驱动 2–4 个H⁺进入囊泡 |
| 功能 | 主动泵H⁺进入囊泡内 → 制造酸性环境(降低pH) ✔️ 激活溶酶体内的酶类 ✔️ 参与受体回收调节等过程 |
② ABC Transporter
(ATP-Binding Cassette)
| 项目 | 内容 |
|---|---|
| 结构 | 有两个 highly conserved 的 ATPase domains(也叫 ATP-binding cassettes) 位于膜内侧(胞质侧) |
| 是否自磷酸化 | ❌ 不自磷酸化,只是使用ATP进行动力转换 |
| 机制(Steps) | ① substrate 结合在一侧的 binding site ② ATP结合 → 构象改变 ③ 物质运输到膜另一侧 ④ ATP水解后 domains 分离,系统复位 |
| 功能 | 把小分子(如药物、营养)主动运出细胞 |
| 位置 | ✅ 所有细菌的PM(如用来把营养泵入) ✅ 真核细胞:几乎到处都有(PM, ER, organelles) 例子:MDR蛋白(多药耐药) |
③ Co-transport & Secondary Active Transport
| 类型 | 方向/特点 | 例子 |
|---|---|---|
| Symport | 两种物质一起进或一起出(同方向) | Na⁺/glucose symporter |
| Antiport | 一进一出(反方向) | Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger |
| 项目 | 内容 |
|---|---|
| 是否使用ATP | ❌ 本身 不直接使用ATP |
| 能量来源 | 来自已有的浓度梯度,通常由原发性主动转运造成 |
| 代表机制 | Secondary active transport(继发性主动转运) |
| 例子 | 肠道中: ① Luminal side:Na⁺/glucose symport 进入细胞(靠Na⁺梯度) ② Basal side:glucose通过载体扩散出去;Na⁺/K⁺ pump维持梯度和膜电位 |
✅ 三种机制对比表
| 类别 | 是否用ATP | 是否自磷酸化 | 是否主动转运 | 举例/功能 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| V-type H⁺ pump | ✔️ 用ATP | ❌ 不自磷酸化 | ✔️ 是 | 泵H⁺进入囊泡,使溶酶体变酸 |
| ABC transporter | ✔️ 用ATP | ❌ 不自磷酸化 | ✔️ 是 | 把小分子如药物或营养泵出/泵入细胞 |
| Co-transport (secondary) | ❌ 不直接用ATP | ❌ 无 | ⚠️ 间接依赖主动转运 | 用Na⁺梯度推动葡萄糖等进入细胞(如肠道) |
🧠 补充说明:ATP-Driven Pumps = Transport ATPases
- 全称:ATP-driven pumps
- 也叫:Transport ATPases
| 理由 | 解释 |
|---|---|
| 它们不仅是转运体(transporter) | 因为能主动转运物质(离子、小分子) |
| 它们也是酶(ATPase) | 因为能催化ATP水解,释放能量(ATP → ADP + Pi)来驱动转运 |
✅ 所有这类泵都属于酶(ATPase family):
| Pump 类型 | 是否是酶? | 备注 |
|---|---|---|
| P-type pump | ✅ 是酶 | 自磷酸化(aspartate),典型ATPase |
| V-type pump | ✅ 是酶 | 虽然不自磷酸化,但会水解ATP来泵H⁺ |
| ABC transporter | ✅ 是酶 | 有ATP-binding cassette,水解ATP触发构象变化 |
🧠 Transport Across Membrane
1 | Transport |
✅ 简易记忆口诀
- Passive = No ATP, just follow concentration gradient
- Simple = no protein
- Channel = open or gated
- Carrier = still no ATP, but needs carrier protein
- Active = Needs energy (either ATP or gradient)
- ATP-driven pumps are real enzymes (ATPases)
- Co-transport uses gradient, not ATP directly
- All secondary active transport relies on primary active transport