Endocrine signalling: from cell to target 内分泌信号从产生到靶细胞
内分泌的基本定义
内分泌:细胞分泌激素进入血液作用于远处靶细胞
Endocrine signalling: hormones released into blood act on distant target cells
激素的产生与释放
激素由特定内分泌细胞合成
Hormones are synthesized by specialized endocrine cells
通过胞吐或扩散进入血液
Released into the bloodstream by exocytosis or diffusion
血液中的运输 Transport in blood
- 亲水性激素:溶于血浆
- Hydrophilic hormones circulate freely in plasma
- 脂溶性激素:与载体蛋白结合
- Lipophilic hormones circulate bound to carrier proteins (albumin, globulins)
游离激素 Free hormone
只有游离形式具有生物活性
Only the free hormone fraction is biologically active
结合态作为储库
Bound hormone acts as a reservoir
靶细胞 Target cell
靶细胞:表达特异性受体的细胞
Target cells express specific receptors for the hormone
无受体 → 无效应
No receptor → no effect
激素-受体相互作用
激素效应取决于受体数量和亲和力
Hormone effect depends on receptor number and affinity
浓度↑ ≠ 效应一定↑
Higher hormone levels do not necessarily mean stronger effects
作用位点 Site of action
膜受体:细胞膜表面
Membrane receptors at the cell surface
核内受体:细胞质 / 细胞核
Intracellular receptors in cytoplasm or nucleus
信号终止 Signal termination
激素被代谢或清除
Hormones are metabolized or eliminated
受体脱敏或下调
Receptor desensitization or downregulation
时间特性 Time scale
肽类 / 胺类:作用快、持续短
Peptide and amine hormones: fast, short-lasting effects
类固醇 / 甲状腺激素:作用慢、持续长
Steroid and thyroid hormones: slow, long-lasting effects
Hormone receptors: main types 激素受体的主要类型
受体的基本概念
受体:与激素特异性结合并介导效应的蛋白
A receptor is a protein that specifically binds a hormone and mediates its effects
激素效应 = 激素 × 受体
Hormone action depends on hormone–receptor interaction
一类:膜受体 Membrane receptors
位于细胞膜
Located on the cell membrane
主要结合亲水性激素
Bind mainly hydrophilic hormones
激素不进入细胞
Hormone does not enter the cell
通过第二信使放大信号
Signal amplification via second messengers
常见例子:
肽类激素
Peptide hormones
儿茶酚胺
Catecholamines
二类:酪氨酸激酶受体 Tyrosine kinase receptors
跨膜受体
Transmembrane receptors
激素结合 → 受体自磷酸化
Hormone binding induces receptor autophosphorylation
直接启动胞内级联反应
Direct activation of intracellular signalling cascades
典型激素:
胰岛素
Insulin
三类:细胞内受体 Intracellular receptors
位于细胞质或细胞核
Located in cytoplasm or nucleus
主要结合脂溶性激素
Bind lipophilic hormones
激素进入细胞
Hormone crosses the cell membrane
激素-受体复合物调控基因转录
Hormone–receptor complex regulates gene transcription
典型激素:
类固醇激素
Steroid hormones
甲状腺激素
Thyroid hormones
时间特性对比
膜受体:起效快,持续短
Membrane receptors: rapid, short-lasting effects
细胞内受体:起效慢,持续长
Intracellular receptors: slow, long-lasting effects
Hypothalamic–Pituitary axis 下丘脑–垂体轴
基本角色
下丘脑:神经信息 → 内分泌信号的转换中心
Hypothalamus converts neural signals into endocrine signals
垂体:控制多数内分泌腺体
Pituitary controls most endocrine glands
垂体的两部分
- 腺垂体 Adenohypophysis(前叶)
内分泌腺
Endocrine tissue - 神经垂体 Neurohypophysis(后叶)
神经内分泌结构
Neuroendocrine tissue
腺垂体的控制方式
下丘脑释放激素 → 垂体门脉系统
Hypothalamic releasing hormones reach anterior pituitary via portal system
调控垂体激素分泌
Regulate secretion of pituitary hormones
腺垂体激素(列名)
- GH
- PRL
- ACTH
- TSH
- LH
- FSH
Pituitary hormones regulate peripheral endocrine glands
垂体激素调控外周内分泌腺体
神经垂体的特点
激素在下丘脑合成
Hormones synthesized in hypothalamus
沿轴突运输至后叶释放
Transported along axons and released from posterior pituitary
激素:
- ADH (vasopressin)
- Oxytocin
反馈调节 Feedback
外周腺体激素对垂体和下丘脑产生负反馈
Peripheral hormones exert negative feedback on pituitary and hypothalamus
长反馈 / 短反馈 / 超短反馈
Long / short / ultra-short feedback loops
轴的功能概括
协调内分泌系统
Coordinates endocrine system
维持内环境稳态
Maintains homeostasis
Thyroid gland 甲状腺
位置与结构
位于气管前方,两叶一峡
Located anterior to the trachea, two lobes with an isthmus
由甲状腺滤泡构成
Composed of follicles
滤泡内为胶质(thyroglobulin)
Follicular lumen contains colloid (thyroglobulin)
细胞类型
- 滤泡细胞 Follicular cells
产生 T4、T3
Produce T4 and T3 - 滤泡旁细胞 Parafollicular (C) cells
产生降钙素
Produce calcitonin
甲状腺激素 Thyroid hormones
T4(thyroxine):主要分泌形式
T4 is the main secreted hormone
T3(triiodothyronine):主要活性形式
T3 is the biologically active form
含碘激素
Iodine-containing hormones
合成与储存(框架)
碘摄取:Na⁺/I⁻ symporter
Iodide uptake via Na⁺/I⁻ symporter
合成于滤泡胶质中
Synthesized and stored in colloid
需要 thyroglobulin、TPO
Requires thyroglobulin and thyroid peroxidase
血中运输 Transport
与载体蛋白结合
Circulate bound to carrier proteins
游离部分具有活性
Free fraction is biologically active
受体与作用机制
细胞内受体(核受体)
Intracellular nuclear receptors
激素-受体复合物调控基因转录
Hormone–receptor complex regulates gene transcription
起效慢,持续时间长
Slow onset, long-lasting effects
调控 Regulation
下丘脑 TRH → 垂体 TSH → 甲状腺
TRH → TSH → thyroid hormone release
T3/T4 对 TRH、TSH 负反馈
Negative feedback by T3/T4
主要生理效应 Main effects
↑ 基础代谢率
Increase basal metabolic rate
↑ 产热
Increase thermogenesis
↑ 心率、心输出量
Increase heart rate and cardiac output
生长与神经系统发育必需
Essential for growth and CNS development
Pancreas(endocrine part)胰腺
结构 Structure
胰腺包含外分泌与内分泌两部分
Pancreas has exocrine and endocrine components
内分泌部分为胰岛 Islets of Langerhans
Endocrine pancreas consists of islets of Langerhans
胰岛高度血管化
Islets are highly vascularized
胰岛细胞类型 Islet cell types
- β cells(β 细胞)
分泌胰岛素
Secrete insulin - α cells(α 细胞)
分泌胰高血糖素
Secrete glucagon - δ cells(δ 细胞)
分泌生长抑素
Secrete somatostatin
Insulin 胰岛素
肽类激素
Peptide hormone
主要作用:降低血糖
Main effect: decrease blood glucose
靶组织:肝、骨骼肌、脂肪
Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue
Insulin 受体与机制
酪氨酸激酶受体
Tyrosine kinase receptor
激活后促进葡萄糖摄取和储存
Promotes glucose uptake and storage
起效快,持续时间较短
Rapid onset, relatively short duration
Insulin 主要效应
↑ 葡萄糖摄取(肌肉、脂肪)
Increase glucose uptake
↑ 糖原合成
Increase glycogen synthesis
↑ 脂肪合成,↓ 脂解
Increase lipogenesis, decrease lipolysis
↑ 蛋白合成
Increase protein synthesis
Glucagon 胰高血糖素
肽类激素
Peptide hormone
主要作用:升高血糖
Main effect: increase blood glucose
主要靶器官:肝脏
Main target: liver
Glucagon 受体与机制
膜受体(GPCR)
Membrane receptor (GPCR)
通过 cAMP 信号通路
Acts via cAMP pathway
Glucagon 主要效应
↑ 糖原分解
Increase glycogenolysis
↑ 糖异生
Increase gluconeogenesis
在骨骼肌无直接作用
No direct effect on skeletal muscle
胰岛素 / 胰高血糖素关系
功能拮抗
Antagonistic actions
共同维持血糖稳态
Together maintain glucose homeostasis
Calcium homeostasis
钙代谢调节系统
钙的生理意义
- 钙:骨骼结构、肌肉收缩、神经传导、凝血
- Calcium is essential for bone structure, muscle contraction, nerve transmission, and coagulation
调节钙稳态的主要激素
- PTH(parathyroid hormone)
- Calcitonin
- Vitamin D₃(calcitriol)
Calcium homeostasis is regulated by PTH, calcitonin, and vitamin D₃
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) 甲状旁腺激素
来源 Source
- 甲状旁腺主细胞
- Secreted by chief cells of the parathyroid glands
主要作用 Main effect
- ↑ 血钙
- Increase plasma calcium
靶器官 Targets
- 骨
- Bone
- 肾
- Kidney
- 肠(间接)
- Intestine (indirectly)
作用机制
- 膜受体(GPCR)
- Membrane receptor (GPCR)
PTH 的效应 Effects
- 骨:↑ 骨吸收
Bone: increased bone resorption - 肾:
↑ Ca²⁺ 重吸收
↑ Phosphate 排泄
Kidney: increased Ca²⁺ reabsorption, increased phosphate excretion - 肠:
↑ 钙吸收(通过 Vit D₃)
Intestine: increased Ca²⁺ absorption via vitamin D₃
Vitamin D₃ (Calcitriol) 维生素 D₃(骨化三醇)
来源与活化
皮肤合成或饮食摄入
Synthesized in skin or obtained from diet
肝、肾两步活化
Activated in liver and kidney
主要作用
↑ 肠道钙、磷吸收
Increase intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphate
促进骨矿化
Promote bone mineralization
受体与机制
细胞内受体
Intracellular receptor
调控基因转录
Regulates gene transcription
Calcitonin 降钙素
来源 Source
甲状腺 C 细胞
Secreted by thyroid parafollicular (C) cells
主要作用
↓ 血钙
Decrease plasma calcium
作用机制
抑制破骨细胞
Inhibits osteoclast activity
生理地位
成人中作用较弱
Minor role in adult calcium homeostasis
三者关系
PTH 与 Vitamin D₃:升钙
PTH and vitamin D₃ increase calcium
Calcitonin:降钙
Calcitonin decreases calcium
共同维持血钙稳态
Together maintain calcium homeostasis