生理学.FINAL | 总复习大纲
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Pathology

1. Homeostasis & Feedback Mechanisms

What is Physio-pathology?

正常怎么工作(How it works):生理机制(physiology)

出问题时发生了什么(What’s happening):病理改变(pathology)

Physio-pathology connects physiology (how organs and systems normally work) with pathology (what changes during disease). The goal is to explain disease as a consequence of functional impairment or loss.

Levels of organization?

细胞 Cells → 组织 Tissues → 器官 Organs → 器官系统 Organ systems → 个体 Organism
细胞是最小的能执行生命与功能过程的结构单位;组织可分肌肉、上皮、结缔、神经四大类。

The body is organized hierarchically: cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → the organism. Cells are the minimal units capable of vital functions, and tissues are classically grouped into muscle, epithelial, connective, and nervous tissue.

What are variables for homeostasis (Physico-chemical parameters)?

稳态要控制的是一组“理化参数”,比如:
代谢物浓度、氧/二氧化碳张力(O₂/CO₂ tension)、废物清除、pH、水/电解质(NaCl 等)、体液容量与压力、体温。

Homeostasis regulates key physico-chemical parameters, including metabolite levels, O₂ and CO₂ tensions, waste removal, pH, water and electrolytes, volume and pressure, and temperature.

Homeostasis and Set point?

Homeostasis:在活体内维持一个相对恒定的内环境。

这些变量会被设定在一个最佳的set point附近;出现轻微偏离时,会启动控制机制把它拉回。

如果控制系统失败,参数“出界”(out of range),可导致疾病甚至死亡。

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment. Variables are regulated around an optimal set point. Small deviations activate control mechanisms; failure of these systems pushes parameters out of range, leading to disease or death.

Feedback control?

系统的输出会反过来影响控制活动,从而改变输出本身
也就是:你做出的反应,会被系统“读回去”,再决定下一步反应强度与方向。

Feedback control means the output of organs feeds back to influence the control activity, thereby modifying the output itself.

Negative feedback

负反馈的本质:把变量拉回 set point
当某个参数偏离设定点时,系统产生一个反向作用来抵消这种偏离,因此负反馈是维持稳态的最主要机制

Negative feedback counteracts deviations from the set point. When a variable changes, the response acts in the opposite direction, making it the primary mechanism for maintaining homeostasis.

Components of Negative feedback

Sensor(感受器):检测变量的变化

Control centre(控制中心):将测量值与 set point 比较

Effector(效应器):执行反应,修正偏差

A negative feedback system consists of three components: a sensor to detect changes, a control centre to compare the value with the set point, and an effector to produce the corrective response.

A classic example of negative feedback: Thermoregulation

  • 变量:体温
  • Sensor:皮肤和中枢温度感受器
  • Control centre:下丘脑(hypothalamus)
  • Effector
    • 太热 → 出汗、皮肤血管扩张
    • 太冷 → 战栗、血管收缩

目标始终是把体温拉回正常范围。

Thermoregulation is a classic example of negative feedback. Temperature sensors signal the hypothalamus, which activates effectors such as sweating or shivering to restore normal body temperature.

Positive feedback

正反馈的特点:

  • 不把变量拉回 set point
  • 反而放大偏离,让系统朝同一方向持续推进

因此它不用于稳态维持,而是用于需要“快速完成”的生理事件。

In positive feedback, the response amplifies the initial change rather than opposing it. It does not stabilize variables and is therefore not a homeostatic mechanism.

A classic example of positive feedback: childbirth

中文

  • 子宫收缩 → 促进催产素释放
  • 催产素 → 增强子宫收缩
  • 循环不断增强,直到婴儿出生,过程自动终止

正反馈必须有一个外部终止点,否则会失控。

Childbirth illustrates positive feedback: uterine contractions stimulate oxytocin release, which further intensifies contractions until delivery terminates the loop.

2. Cardiovascular system – Blood

Definition of blood?

**血液(blood)**是一种 液态结缔组织,在心血管系统内循环。它不是“水”,而是由细胞成分悬浮在血浆中的一种组织。

Blood is a liquid connective tissue that circulates within the cardiovascular system. It consists of cells suspended in plasma.

Functions of blood?

血液的功能可归纳为四类:

  1. 运输(Transport):氧气、营养物、激素、代谢废物
  2. 调节(Regulation):pH、体温、体液容量
  3. 防御(Protection):免疫反应
  4. 止血(Haemostasis):防止失血

The main functions of blood include transport, regulation, protection, and haemostasis.

Components of Blood

血液由两大部分组成:

  • Plasma(血浆):液体部分
  • Formed elements(形成元素)
    • 红细胞(RBCs)
    • 白细胞(WBCs)
    • 血小板(Platelets)

比例上,血浆约占 55%,形成元素约 45%(即血细胞比容)。

Blood consists of plasma and formed elements. Plasma accounts for about 55%, while formed elements make up roughly 45% of blood volume.

Plasma

血浆 ≈ 90% 水,其余包括:

  • 血浆蛋白
    • 白蛋白(albumin)
    • 球蛋白(globulins)
    • 纤维蛋白原(fibrinogen)
  • 电解质、营养物、激素、代谢废物

Plasma is about 90% water and contains plasma proteins such as albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen, as well as electrolytes, nutrients, hormones, and wastes.

RBC

红细胞的主要功能是运输氧气(以及部分二氧化碳)。

  • 含有大量 血红蛋白(haemoglobin)
  • 无细胞核 → 更大空间装载氧气
  • 双凹圆盘形态 → 提高表面积与柔韧性

Red blood cells transport oxygen via haemoglobin. Their biconcave shape and lack of a nucleus maximize oxygen-carrying capacity and flexibility.

WBC

白细胞的核心作用是免疫防御
与红细胞不同,白细胞:

  • 数量少得多
  • 有细胞核
  • 可以离开血管,进入组织(diapedesis)

它们不是为了运输,而是为了识别、攻击和清除威胁

White blood cells are primarily involved in immune defence. Unlike red blood cells, they have nuclei and can migrate out of blood vessels into tissues.

Granulocytes vs Agranulocytes

白细胞按是否含有明显颗粒分为:

① Granulocytes(有颗粒)

  • 中性粒细胞(Neutrophils)
  • 嗜酸性粒细胞(Eosinophils)
  • 嗜碱性粒细胞(Basophils)

② Agranulocytes(无明显颗粒)

  • 淋巴细胞(Lymphocytes)
  • 单核细胞(Monocytes)

White blood cells are classified into granulocytes and agranulocytes, based on the presence or absence of cytoplasmic granules.

Neutrophils vs Lymphocytes

Neutrophils(中性粒细胞)

  • 数量最多
  • 先天免疫
  • 吞噬细菌(phagocytosis)

Lymphocytes(淋巴细胞)

  • 适应性免疫
  • 包括 B cells、T cells、NK cells

急性感染 → neutrophils;特异免疫 → lymphocytes

Neutrophils are key players in innate immunity and phagocytosis, whereas lymphocytes are central to adaptive immunity.

Platelets

血小板不是完整细胞,而是:

  • 来自骨髓中**巨核细胞(megakaryocytes)**的细胞碎片
  • 主要功能:止血(haemostasis)

当血管受损时,血小板迅速聚集,形成血小板栓。

Platelets are cell fragments derived from megakaryocytes and play a crucial role in haemostasis by forming a platelet plug at sites of vascular injury.

Haemostasis

止血过程分为三步:

  1. 血管收缩(Vasoconstriction)
  2. 血小板栓形成(Platelet plug formation)
  3. 血液凝固(Coagulation)

这是一个高度协调的级联反应

Haemostasis occurs in three steps: vasoconstriction, platelet plug formation, and coagulation. It is a tightly regulated cascade.

3. Cardiovascular System - Heart

Heart as a pump

心脏的本质功能只有一个:作为压力泵,推动血液循环

  • 右心 → 将去氧血泵向肺循环
  • 左心 → 将含氧血泵向体循环

它通过周期性收缩与舒张来完成这一任务。

The heart functions as a pressure pump that drives blood through the pulmonary and systemic circulations by rhythmic contraction and relaxation.

Double circulation

人类心血管系统是双循环系统

  • Pulmonary circulation(肺循环):右心 → 肺 → 左心
  • Systemic circulation(体循环):左心 → 全身 → 右心

这使得体循环可以在高压下运行,而肺循环保持低压,保护肺毛细血管。

Humans have a double circulation system consisting of pulmonary and systemic circulations, allowing high pressure in systemic flow and low pressure in the lungs.

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