Pathology
1. Homeostasis & Feedback Mechanisms
What is Physio-pathology?
正常怎么工作(How it works):生理机制(physiology)
出问题时发生了什么(What’s happening):病理改变(pathology)
Physio-pathology connects physiology (how organs and systems normally work) with pathology (what changes during disease). The goal is to explain disease as a consequence of functional impairment or loss.
Levels of organization?
细胞 Cells → 组织 Tissues → 器官 Organs → 器官系统 Organ systems → 个体 Organism。
细胞是最小的能执行生命与功能过程的结构单位;组织可分肌肉、上皮、结缔、神经四大类。
The body is organized hierarchically: cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → the organism. Cells are the minimal units capable of vital functions, and tissues are classically grouped into muscle, epithelial, connective, and nervous tissue.
What are variables for homeostasis (Physico-chemical parameters)?
稳态要控制的是一组“理化参数”,比如:
代谢物浓度、氧/二氧化碳张力(O₂/CO₂ tension)、废物清除、pH、水/电解质(NaCl 等)、体液容量与压力、体温。
Homeostasis regulates key physico-chemical parameters, including metabolite levels, O₂ and CO₂ tensions, waste removal, pH, water and electrolytes, volume and pressure, and temperature.
Homeostasis and Set point?
Homeostasis:在活体内维持一个相对恒定的内环境。
这些变量会被设定在一个最佳的set point附近;出现轻微偏离时,会启动控制机制把它拉回。
如果控制系统失败,参数“出界”(out of range),可导致疾病甚至死亡。
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment. Variables are regulated around an optimal set point. Small deviations activate control mechanisms; failure of these systems pushes parameters out of range, leading to disease or death.
Feedback control?
系统的输出会反过来影响控制活动,从而改变输出本身。
也就是:你做出的反应,会被系统“读回去”,再决定下一步反应强度与方向。
Feedback control means the output of organs feeds back to influence the control activity, thereby modifying the output itself.
Negative feedback
负反馈的本质:把变量拉回 set point。
当某个参数偏离设定点时,系统产生一个反向作用来抵消这种偏离,因此负反馈是维持稳态的最主要机制。
Negative feedback counteracts deviations from the set point. When a variable changes, the response acts in the opposite direction, making it the primary mechanism for maintaining homeostasis.
Components of Negative feedback
Sensor(感受器):检测变量的变化
Control centre(控制中心):将测量值与 set point 比较
Effector(效应器):执行反应,修正偏差
A negative feedback system consists of three components: a sensor to detect changes, a control centre to compare the value with the set point, and an effector to produce the corrective response.
A classic example of negative feedback: Thermoregulation
- 变量:体温
- Sensor:皮肤和中枢温度感受器
- Control centre:下丘脑(hypothalamus)
- Effector:
- 太热 → 出汗、皮肤血管扩张
- 太冷 → 战栗、血管收缩
目标始终是把体温拉回正常范围。
Thermoregulation is a classic example of negative feedback. Temperature sensors signal the hypothalamus, which activates effectors such as sweating or shivering to restore normal body temperature.
Positive feedback
正反馈的特点:
- 不把变量拉回 set point
- 反而放大偏离,让系统朝同一方向持续推进
因此它不用于稳态维持,而是用于需要“快速完成”的生理事件。
In positive feedback, the response amplifies the initial change rather than opposing it. It does not stabilize variables and is therefore not a homeostatic mechanism.
A classic example of positive feedback: childbirth
中文:
- 子宫收缩 → 促进催产素释放
- 催产素 → 增强子宫收缩
- 循环不断增强,直到婴儿出生,过程自动终止
正反馈必须有一个外部终止点,否则会失控。
Childbirth illustrates positive feedback: uterine contractions stimulate oxytocin release, which further intensifies contractions until delivery terminates the loop.
2. Cardiovascular system – Blood
Definition of blood?
**血液(blood)**是一种 液态结缔组织,在心血管系统内循环。它不是“水”,而是由细胞成分悬浮在血浆中的一种组织。
Blood is a liquid connective tissue that circulates within the cardiovascular system. It consists of cells suspended in plasma.
Functions of blood?
血液的功能可归纳为四类:
- 运输(Transport):氧气、营养物、激素、代谢废物
- 调节(Regulation):pH、体温、体液容量
- 防御(Protection):免疫反应
- 止血(Haemostasis):防止失血
The main functions of blood include transport, regulation, protection, and haemostasis.
Components of Blood
血液由两大部分组成:
- Plasma(血浆):液体部分
- Formed elements(形成元素):
- 红细胞(RBCs)
- 白细胞(WBCs)
- 血小板(Platelets)
比例上,血浆约占 55%,形成元素约 45%(即血细胞比容)。
Blood consists of plasma and formed elements. Plasma accounts for about 55%, while formed elements make up roughly 45% of blood volume.
Plasma
血浆 ≈ 90% 水,其余包括:
- 血浆蛋白:
- 白蛋白(albumin)
- 球蛋白(globulins)
- 纤维蛋白原(fibrinogen)
- 电解质、营养物、激素、代谢废物
Plasma is about 90% water and contains plasma proteins such as albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen, as well as electrolytes, nutrients, hormones, and wastes.
RBC
红细胞的主要功能是运输氧气(以及部分二氧化碳)。
- 含有大量 血红蛋白(haemoglobin)
- 无细胞核 → 更大空间装载氧气
- 双凹圆盘形态 → 提高表面积与柔韧性
Red blood cells transport oxygen via haemoglobin. Their biconcave shape and lack of a nucleus maximize oxygen-carrying capacity and flexibility.
WBC
白细胞的核心作用是免疫防御。
与红细胞不同,白细胞:
- 数量少得多
- 有细胞核
- 可以离开血管,进入组织(diapedesis)
它们不是为了运输,而是为了识别、攻击和清除威胁。
White blood cells are primarily involved in immune defence. Unlike red blood cells, they have nuclei and can migrate out of blood vessels into tissues.
Granulocytes vs Agranulocytes
白细胞按是否含有明显颗粒分为:
① Granulocytes(有颗粒)
- 中性粒细胞(Neutrophils)
- 嗜酸性粒细胞(Eosinophils)
- 嗜碱性粒细胞(Basophils)
② Agranulocytes(无明显颗粒)
- 淋巴细胞(Lymphocytes)
- 单核细胞(Monocytes)
White blood cells are classified into granulocytes and agranulocytes, based on the presence or absence of cytoplasmic granules.
Neutrophils vs Lymphocytes
Neutrophils(中性粒细胞)
- 数量最多
- 先天免疫
- 吞噬细菌(phagocytosis)
Lymphocytes(淋巴细胞)
- 适应性免疫
- 包括 B cells、T cells、NK cells
急性感染 → neutrophils;特异免疫 → lymphocytes。
Neutrophils are key players in innate immunity and phagocytosis, whereas lymphocytes are central to adaptive immunity.
Platelets
血小板不是完整细胞,而是:
- 来自骨髓中**巨核细胞(megakaryocytes)**的细胞碎片
- 主要功能:止血(haemostasis)
当血管受损时,血小板迅速聚集,形成血小板栓。
Platelets are cell fragments derived from megakaryocytes and play a crucial role in haemostasis by forming a platelet plug at sites of vascular injury.
Haemostasis
止血过程分为三步:
- 血管收缩(Vasoconstriction)
- 血小板栓形成(Platelet plug formation)
- 血液凝固(Coagulation)
这是一个高度协调的级联反应。
Haemostasis occurs in three steps: vasoconstriction, platelet plug formation, and coagulation. It is a tightly regulated cascade.
3. Cardiovascular System - Heart
Heart as a pump
心脏的本质功能只有一个:作为压力泵,推动血液循环。
- 右心 → 将去氧血泵向肺循环
- 左心 → 将含氧血泵向体循环
它通过周期性收缩与舒张来完成这一任务。
The heart functions as a pressure pump that drives blood through the pulmonary and systemic circulations by rhythmic contraction and relaxation.
Double circulation
人类心血管系统是双循环系统:
- Pulmonary circulation(肺循环):右心 → 肺 → 左心
- Systemic circulation(体循环):左心 → 全身 → 右心
这使得体循环可以在高压下运行,而肺循环保持低压,保护肺毛细血管。
Humans have a double circulation system consisting of pulmonary and systemic circulations, allowing high pressure in systemic flow and low pressure in the lungs.